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A STUDY ON TEACHING ACTIVITIES TO ENHANCE
SPEAKING ELOQUENCE IN ENGLISH-SPECIALISED STUDENTS
ABSTRACT
This study explores effective teaching activities designed to enhance speaking eloquence in English-
specialised students. These activities include impromptu speaking, using AI virtual assistants to practice
speaking outside of class, practising non-verbal communication, identifying logical fallacies, constructing
arguments, and engaging in debates. The study employs a qualitative research approach, incorporating a
comprehensive literature review and analysis of previous case studies. The findings from the literature were
used to design and implement the activities in the classroom setting of 35 gifted student. Initial success in
improving students' speaking skills suggests the potential for wider adoption and further experimentation
to validate these methods. The study contributes valuable insights into practical strategies for enhancing
eloquence among English-specialised students and offers a framework for educators seeking to develop
advanced speaking skills in their students.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................................. 1
PART A. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 4
1. Rationale of the study ............................................................................................................................ 4
2. Aims of the study .................................................................................................................................. 4
3. Scope of the study ................................................................................................................................. 5
4. Significance of the study ....................................................................................................................... 5
5. Design of the study ................................................................................................................................ 5
PART B: DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................ 6
1. Theoretical Background ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.1. The Definition of Eloquence in Speaking ...................................................................................... 6
1.2. The Importance of Developing Eloquence in Speaking ................................................................ 6
1.3. Overview of Communication Theories Relevant to Speaking Eloquence ..................................... 6
1.4. Factors affecting students’ Eloquence in Speaking ....................................................................... 7
1.5. Teaching activities to enhance speaking eloquence ....................................................................... 8
2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................................ 8
2.1. Analysis of Existing Research on Teaching Speaking Skills ........................................................ 8
2.2. Case Studies of Successful Programmes Enhancing Speaking Eloquence .................................... 8
CHAPTER II: PRACTICAL APPLICATION......................................................................................... 9
1. ACTIVITY 1: IMPROMPTU SPEAKING DRILLS ...................................................................... 9
1.1. The importance of Impromptu Speaking: ...................................................................................... 9
1.2. Teaching procedure of Impromptu Speaking: ............................................................................... 9
2. ACTIVITY 2: USING AI VIRTUAL ASSISTANTS FOR SPEAKING PRACTICE ............... 12
2.1. The importance of using AI virtual assistants for speaking practice: .......................................... 12
2.2. Teaching procedure of Using AI virtual assistants for speaking practice: .................................. 13
3. ACTIVITY 3: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION ................................................................... 14
3.1. The importance of Non-verbal Communication: ......................................................................... 14
3.2. Teaching procedure of Non-verbal Communication: .................................................................. 15
4. ACTIVITY 4: IDENTIFYING LOGICAL FALLACIES ............................................................. 17
4.1. The importance of identifying Logical Fallacies: ........................................................................ 17
4.2. Teaching procedure of identifying Logical Fallacies: ................................................................. 17
5. ACTIVITY 5: CONSTRUCTING COUNTERARGUMENTS .................................................... 20
5.1. The importance of Counterarguments: ........................................................................................ 20
5.2. Teaching procedure of constructing Counterarguments: ............................................................. 20
6. ACTIVITY 6: DEBATES ................................................................................................................. 23
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6.1. The importance of teaching Debates to students: ........................................................................ 23
6.2. Teaching procedure of Debates: .................................................................................................. 23
PART C: CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 26
1. Summary of the study .......................................................................................................................... 26
2. Limitation of the study ........................................................................................................................ 26
PART D: SOURCES OF DATA AND REFERENCES ......................................................................... 28
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................................. 30
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PART A. INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
In the increasingly globalised world, English proficiency has become a crucial skill for students,
especially those specialising in English studies. Among the various components of language proficiency,
speaking eloquence stands out as a vital skill that enhances both academic and professional opportunities.
The ability to speak eloquently in English not only reflects a student's linguistic competence but also their
confidence and capacity to effectively communicate ideas.
Despite the importance of speaking eloquence, many English-specialised students struggle to
develop this skill to a satisfactory level. Traditional teaching methods often emphasise grammar, reading,
and writing, with less focus on speaking skills. Furthermore, the classroom environment may not always
provide sufficient opportunities for students to practise speaking in a meaningful and interactive manner.
This gap in language education necessitates an exploration of effective teaching activities that specifically
target the enhancement of speaking eloquence.
This research aims to address this need by identifying and evaluating teaching activities that can
significantly improve the speaking eloquence of English-specialised students. By doing so, it seeks to
contribute to the field of language education by providing practical strategies that educators can implement
to foster better speaking skills among their students. The outcomes of this study are expected to benefit not
only students but also educators and curriculum developers by offering insights into more effective teaching
practices for speaking skills.
2. Aims of the study
This study aims to enhance the speaking eloquence of English-specialised students through the
following objectives:
To thoroughly investigate theoretical background and disciplines relevant to eloquence in speaking.
To suggest effective teaching activities that enhance speaking eloquence.
To develop detailed lesson plans and procedures for implementing these activities.
The ultimate goal is to provide valuable resources for educators to systematically enhance their students'
oral communication skills.
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3. Scope of the study
This study focuses on a group of 35 students from an English-specialised class, whose language
proficiency levels range from B2 to C1 according to the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (CEFR) scale. Over the course of three months, the study will implement various teaching
activities specifically designed to enhance the students' speaking eloquence. The progress in their speaking
skills will be evaluated throughout this period to assess the effectiveness of the teaching methods employed.
4. Significance of the study
This study holds significant promise for enhancing speaking skills among English-specialised
students, addressing a critical yet often underemphasised area in traditional language curricula. By focusing
on teaching activities that promote eloquence, the research aims to provide practical strategies for educators
to integrate into existing frameworks, enriching the educational experience and outcomes for students.
Improved speaking skills are essential for effective communication in both academic and professional
contexts,
boosting
students'
confidence,
participation,
and
ability
to
express
ideas
persuasively.
Additionally, this study contributes to the body of knowledge on language teaching methodologies, serving
as a reference for future research and inspiring further investigations into effective teaching methods and
innovations in language education.
5. Design of the study
The study aims to suggest activities to enhance eloquence in speaking for gifted students. The design
of this study includes the following key components:
a. Research Approach
The study will employ a qualitative research approach to gather insights into effective activities for
enhancing eloquence. This approach will allow for a detailed exploration of existing literature, case studies,
and theoretical frameworks.
b. Literature Review
A comprehensive review of existing literature will be conducted to identify current practices, theories,
and methodologies related to enhancing speaking eloquence. Key sources will include academic journals,
books, and relevant educational materials. The review will focus on theories of eloquence and public
speaking and suggested activities and exercises in teaching speaking skills.
c. Case Studies
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Previous case studies on implementing teaching activities to enhance students’ eloquence will be
analysed. These case studies will offer real-world examples of effective practices and activities, serving as
a foundation for the next parts of my research.
d. Activity Design and Recommendation
Based on the findings from the literature review and case studies, a set of activities will be designed
and recommended. These activities will be tailored to the unique needs and capabilities of gifted students
and will focus on developing their eloquence through a variety of targeted exercises, including impromptu
speaking,
using
AI
virtual
assistants
to
practice
speaking
outside
of
class,
practising
non-verbal
communication, identifying logical fallacies, constructing arguments, and debates.
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1. Theoretical Background
1.1. The Definition of Eloquence in Speaking
Eloquence in speaking refers to the ability to express ideas clearly, fluently, and persuasively
(Smith, 2010). It encompasses not only linguistic proficiency but also the speaker’s ability to engage and
influence the audience through effective use of language, tone, and body language. Eloquence is
characterised by clarity, coherence, and an attractive delivery that captures the listener’s attention and
conveys the intended message with impact.
1.2. The Importance of Developing Eloquence in Speaking
According to Scarcella & Oxford (1992), developing eloquence in speaking enhances academic
performance and career prospects. It enhances academic performance, as students can articulate their ideas
more effectively in presentations and discussions. Professionally, eloquence improves employability and
career
advancement
opportunities,
particularly
in
fields
that
require
strong
communication
skills.
Moreover, eloquence fosters personal growth by boosting confidence and self-esteem, enabling individuals
to express themselves more confidently and persuasively in different contexts.
1.3. Overview of Communication Theories Relevant to Speaking Eloquence
Enhancing speaking eloquence in students, particularly those specialising in English, requires a
well-rounded understanding of several theoretical frameworks and the implementation of targeted teaching
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activities. This section explores three key theories that inform effective teaching practices aimed at
improving students' speaking abilities.
a. Elaboration Likelihood Model
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), proposed by Petty and Cacioppo (1986), provides
insights into how individuals process persuasive messages. According to ELM, there are two primary routes
to persuasion: the central route, which involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the arguments
(logical appeals), and the peripheral route, which relies on surface characteristics such as the speaker's
attractiveness or emotional appeals. This model underscores the importance of equipping students with
skills to engage audiences through both logical reasoning and emotional resonance. Teaching activities that
focus on crafting strong, evidence-based arguments as well as developing emotional appeals can thus
enhance speaking eloquence (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).
b. Speech Act Theory
Speech Act Theory, introduced by Austin (1962), examines how utterances function as actions and
the role of intention and context in communication. This theory suggests that effective communication is
not merely about linguistic accuracy but also about the appropriate use of language in different contexts to
achieve desired outcomes. By understanding the functions of speech acts such as requesting, promising, or
apologising, students can improve their communicative competence. Teaching activities that simulate real-
life scenarios where students must navigate different social contexts and intentions can therefore be
particularly beneficial (Austin, 1962).
c. Social Learning Theory
Bandura's Social Learning Theory (1977) emphasises the role of observational learning in acquiring
new skills. According to this theory, individuals learn by observing and imitating those they consider role
models. This suggests that exposure to eloquent speakers can significantly enhance students' speaking
abilities. Incorporating activities that involve watching and analysing speeches, as well as participating in
public speaking activities, can provide valuable learning opportunities for students. Bandura's theory
highlights the importance of providing students with models of effective communication to emulate
(Bandura, 1977).
1.4. Factors affecting students’ Eloquence in Speaking
A number of studies have pinpointed critical factors affecting eloquence in speaking. Linguistic
proficiency, including vocabulary and grammar, is fundamental (Brown, 2007). Additionally, cognitive
factors such as critical thinking and organisational skills affect how well students can structure their
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thoughts and arguments (Facione, 1990). Psychological factors, including anxiety and self-confidence, also
significantly impact performance (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre, Noels, & Clément, 1996).
Environmental factors, such as classroom dynamics and opportunities for practice, also play a crucial role
in developing speaking eloquence (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
Understanding the factors that influence speaking eloquence is crucial for developing effective
teaching strategies. Additionally, creating a supportive and non-judgmental classroom environment is also
important as it encourages students to take risks and practice speaking more freely.
1.5. Teaching activities to enhance speaking eloquence
Effective teaching activities to enhance speaking eloquence include interactive exercises that
promote active participation and practice. Role-plays, debates, and presentations provide opportunities for
students to practice speaking in diverse scenarios (Nunan, 1991). Feedback sessions, peer evaluations, and
reflective practices help students identify areas for improvement and build on their strengths. Incorporating
multimedia tools, such as video recordings and analysis, allows students to observe and critique their own
performances and those of others (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
2. Literature Review
2.1. Analysis of Existing Research on Teaching Speaking Skills
Existing research on teaching speaking skills highlights various effective strategies. Studies suggest
that interactive and communicative activities are more effective than traditional lecture-based methods
(Savignon, 1997; Nunan, 2003). For instance, collaborative tasks such as group discussions and peer
feedback sessions have been shown to improve speaking skills
by
providing students with more
opportunities to practice and receive constructive feedback (Ur, 1996; Burns & Joyce, 1997). Research also
underscores the importance of integrating speaking activities with other language skills, such as reading
and writing, to provide a more comprehensive learning experience.
2.2. Case Studies of Successful Programmes Enhancing Speaking Eloquence
Several case studies illustrate successful programmes aimed at enhancing speaking eloquence. One
notable example is a programme that incorporated drama and performance arts into the curriculum, which
significantly improved students’ confidence and speaking skills (Johnson, 2005). Another case study
examined the impact of debate clubs and found that regular participation in debates helped students develop
critical
thinking
and
persuasive
speaking
abilities
(Graham
&
Macaro,
2008).
These
programmes
demonstrate the effectiveness of practical, performance-based activities in fostering eloquence in speaking.
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In conclusion, the theoretical framework and existing literature provide a solid foundation for
exploring
teaching
activities
that
enhance
speaking
eloquence
in
English-specialised
students.
By
understanding the factors that influence eloquence and examining successful teaching strategies, this study
aims to develop practical recommendations for educators to improve their students’ speaking skills.
CHAPTER II: PRACTICAL APPLICATION
1. ACTIVITY 1: IMPROMPTU SPEAKING DRILLS
1.1. The importance of Impromptu Speaking:
Impromptu Speaking is the practice of speaking without prior preparation on a given topic. The goal is
to enhance a speaker's ability to think and articulate thoughts quickly and clearly.
Impromptu speaking is a critical skill that offers numerous benefits in both public speaking and
everyday communication. Firstly, it enhances spontaneity, allowing individuals to think and respond
quickly without prior preparation. This quick-thinking ability is invaluable in dynamic conversations and
impromptu situations. Secondly, engaging in impromptu speaking builds confidence, helping individuals
become more self-assured in their public speaking and daily interactions. Regular practice fosters a sense
of comfort when speaking spontaneously. Additionally, impromptu speaking improves communication
skills by encouraging clarity and organization in speech. Speakers learn to articulate their thoughts
concisely and coherently, even under pressure. Lastly, it enhances adaptability, equipping individuals with
the ability to handle unexpected questions or situations effectively.
1.2. Teaching procedure of Impromptu Speaking:
SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN 1: IMPROMPTU SPEAKING
Objective: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
think and respond quickly in English.
build confidence in speaking spontaneously.
improve the clarity, organization, and engagement of their impromptu speeches.
Materials:
Timer (for speech time limits)
Topic cards (prepared in advance with a variety of impromptu speaking topics)
Duration: 60 minutes
LESSON PROCEDURE
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1. Warm-up (5 minutes):
Teacher asks simple, quick-response questions to the class (e.g., "What did you have for
breakfast?", "What is your favourite colour and why?").
Students take turns answering in one or two sentences.
2. Introduction to Impromptu Speaking (5 minutes):
Teacher explains what impromptu speaking is and why it is important. Ask students to think of
some real-life situations where impromptu speaking is useful, for example: job interviews,
meetings, social gatherings, Q&A sessions, etc.
Discuss the benefits of impromptu speaking in everyday situations and professional settings.
Highlight the key elements: quick thinking, organization, clarity, and engagement.
3. Demonstration (10 minutes):
Teacher demonstrates an impromptu speech on a random topic, using a simple structure (e.g.,
introduction, body, conclusion).
After the demonstration, the teacher breaks down the speech, pointing out how they quickly
thought of ideas, organised their speech, maintained clarity, and engaged the audience.
4. Practice Round 1 (15 minutes):
Each student draws a topic card and has 1 minute to prepare their thoughts.
Students then give a 1-2 minute speech on their topic.
While one student speaks, others listen and note down feedback based on the key elements (quick
thinking, organization, clarity, engagement).
Topic Examples:
"Describe your favourite holiday."
"Talk about the importance of laughter."
"What would you do if you won the lottery?"
"Talk about a memorable moment from your childhood."
"If you could have any superpower, what would it be and why?"
"Explain your favourite hobby."
"What would you change about the education system?"
"Describe a person you admire and why."
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It is suggested to use a wide range of topics to keep the activity interesting and challenging. Mix
fun, serious, abstract, and personal topics.
5. Feedback and Discussion (5 minutes)
After each speech, a few peers provide constructive feedback.
The teacher also gives brief feedback, focusing on strengths and areas for improvement.
6. Practice Round 2 (15 minutes)
Repeat the procedure from Practice Round 1 with new topics.
Students draw a new topic card, prepare for 1 minute, and give a 1-2 minute speech.
Step 4 and 6 (Practice Round 1 and Practice Round 2) can be changed to other alternatives such as
partner/ group speeches to enhance collaboration and learn from peers or speed-up round to enhance quick
thinking and concise speaking in a faster pace. These options can be conducted as follows:
Alternative 1: Partner and Group Impromptu Speeches
1.
Partner Speeches:
Pair students and have them draw a topic card.
Each pair has 2 minutes to discuss and plan their speech.
Pairs deliver a 3-minute speech, with each partner contributing equally. They can alternate
speaking or divide the speech into sections.
Provide feedback focusing on teamwork and coherence.
2.
Group Speeches:
Form groups of 3-4 students and provide a topic card.
Groups have 5 minutes to discuss and plan their speech.
Each group delivers a 5-minute speech, with each member contributing.
Provide feedback focusing on collaboration and organization.
Topic Examples:
Discuss the pros and cons of social media.
How to make the world a better place.
The impact of technology on education.
What would you do if you won the lottery?
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The role of sports in promoting teamwork.
Alternative 2: Rapid-Fire Round
Teacher provides new topic cards. These topics and questions can be referenced from IELTS
Speaking Part 2.
Students have 30 seconds to think and 1 minute to speak on each topic.
Teacher provides quick feedback after each speech.
7. Wrap-up and Reflection (5 minutes)
Ask students to reflect on their performance and what they learned.
Discuss what strategies worked best for quick thinking and organization.
Encourage students to share how they felt during the speeches and any challenges they faced.
8. Homework (Optional)
Assign students to practice impromptu speaking at home using a list of topics.
Ask them to record themselves and listen to their speech, noting areas for improvement.
2. ACTIVITY 2: USING AI VIRTUAL ASSISTANTS FOR SPEAKING PRACTICE
2.1. The importance of using AI virtual assistants for speaking practice:
Nowadays, the use of AI in teaching and learning is becoming increasingly popular. AI virtual assistants
are developed to support humans in various daily tasks, including practising English speaking skills. These
virtual assistants provide learners with opportunities to engage in interactive conversations and personalise
their learning experiences to enhance fluency, pronunciation, and confidence in speaking. AI assistants
offer immediate feedback on pronunciation and grammar, which is crucial for refining language skills in
real-time. Moreover, they create a safe and non-judgemental environment where learners can practise
without fear of embarrassment, thereby promoting a positive learning experience. By simulating real-world
conversations and adapting to individual learning needs, AI virtual assistants not only complement
traditional language instruction but also cater to the diverse learning styles and preferences of modern
learners, thereby enhancing language acquisition outcomes effectively.
The researcher has personally experimented with various virtual assistants and speaking skill support
apps, concluding that the two optimal apps for speaking practice for students are Replika and ChatGPT.
These two applications will be integrated into the lesson plan below to introduce, guide on usage, and
encourage students to practise independently with these virtual assistants outside of the classroom.
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2.2. Teaching procedure of Using AI virtual assistants for speaking practice:
SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN 2: USING AI VIRTUAL ASSISTANTS
FOR SPEAKING PRACTICE
Objective: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to practice speaking English with AI virtual
assistants (Replika and ChatGPT) to improve fluency, pronunciation, and conversational skills.
Materials:
Devices with internet access (computers, tablets, or smartphones)
Replika app installed (available on iOS and Android)
ChatGPT app installed (available on iOS and Android)
Duration: 45 minutes
LESSON PROCEDURE
1. Warm-up: (5 minutes)
Teacher asks students if they use any AI tools to assist in learning English and how frequently they
use these tools.
Asks students if they know any AI virtual assistants and discusses how they can help improve
speaking skills.
Introduces the two apps: Replika and ChatGPT
2. Introduction to Replika (8 minutes)
Have students download and install the Replika app (if not done beforehand).
Walk through the registration process and profile setup (see Appendix A).
Demonstrate how to initiate a conversation with Replika.
Provide examples of conversation starters and topics.
Discuss the feedback Replika provides (correcting grammar, suggesting vocabulary).
3. Practice Session: Speaking with Replika (10 minutes)
Pair students to practice initiating and maintaining conversations with Replika.
Encourage students to focus on fluency and pronunciation.
Circulate to provide guidance and answer questions as students interact with Replika.
Optionally, provide conversation prompts to stimulate discussion.
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4. Introduction to ChatGPT (8 minutes)
Repeat the same process as with Introduction to Replika. (see Appendix B)
5. Practice Session: Speaking with ChatGPT (10 minutes)
Repeat the same process as with Practice Session: Speaking with Replika.
6. Reflection (4 minutes)
Ask students to share their experiences using Replika and ChatGPT.
Discuss any challenges encountered and strategies for improving speaking skills.
Summarise the benefits of using AI virtual assistants for language practice.
7. Homework:
Assign students to continue practicing with Replika and ChatGPT outside of class.
Encourage them to explore different conversation topics and review their interactions for self-
assessment.
3. ACTIVITY 3: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
3.1. The importance of Non-verbal Communication:
Non-verbal communication, including body language, eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions, is
essential for effective public speaking. These elements complement verbal communication, making a
speaker's message more impactful and engaging.
Body Language: Positive body language, such as an upright posture and deliberate movements,
conveys confidence and openness. It reinforces the spoken word, making the message more convincing.
Eye Contact: Maintaining eye contact builds a connection with the audience, conveying sincerity and
confidence. It engages listeners and fosters trust, making them more receptive to the message.
Gestures: Hand and arm movements emphasise key points and add dynamism to a speech. Purposeful
gestures highlight important information, making it easier for the audience to follow and remember.
Facial Expressions: Matching facial expressions with the content of the speech enhances emotional
impact and clarity. It makes the communication more authentic and relatable.
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Mastering non-verbal communication transforms a good speech into an outstanding one by conveying
the message with clarity and emotion. Practicing these techniques is crucial for improving eloquence and
effectiveness in public speaking.
3.2. Teaching procedure of Non-verbal Communication:
SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN 3: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Objective: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to understand the importance of body
language, eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions in communication and apply these skills to
enhance their eloquence while speaking.
Materials:
TV/Projector
Video clips demonstrating effective and ineffective communication
Duration: 60 minutes
LESSON PROCEDURE
1. Warm-up: (5 minutes)
Teacher shows 2 short video clips and ask students to compare the differences of speaker in each
video.
https://youtu.be/ydo8XUZDWvQ
https://youtu.be/iZVQjnFQnlw
Students discuss which way of speaking is better and why.
Lead to the topic: Non-verbal Communication.
2. Explanation of Key Concepts: (15 minutes)
a. Body Language:
Definition: The use of physical behaviour, expressions, and mannerisms to communicate non-
verbally.
Key Tips: Stand up straight, avoid crossing arms, move naturally.
Example: A speaker who stands tall and uses open body posture to appear confident and
approachable.
b. Eye Contact:
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Definition: The act of looking directly into the audience’s eyes to create a connection.
Key Tips: Maintain eye contact for 3-5 seconds per person, avoid looking at the floor or ceiling.
Example: A speaker who scans the room, maintains steady eye contact with different individuals.
c. Gestures:
Definition: Movements of the hands, arms, and head to express ideas and emotions (e.g., pointing,
waving, illustrating size or direction).
Key Tips: Use natural and purposeful gestures, avoid overuse or distraction.
Example: A speaker who uses hand gestures to emphasise key points and add energy to the
presentation.
d. Facial Expressions:
Definition: Movements of the face that convey emotions and reactions. (e.g., smiling, frowning,
raising eyebrows).
Key Tips: Ensure facial expressions match the content and tone of the speech, practice in front of
a mirror.
Example: A speaker who smiles when talking about positive experiences and shows concern when
discussing serious issues.
3. Watch examples: (5 minutes)
Teacher plays clips of speeches that effectively use body language, eye contact, gestures, and
facial expressions (e.g., TED Talks, famous political speeches).
https://youtu.be/arj7oStGLkU?si=msoUTrqUE86LK8N5
The video clip should include the transcript of the speech.
Have the students pay attention to the speaker’s body language, eye contact, gestures, and facial
expressions and discuss how these elements contribute to the effectiveness of the speech.
4. Practice: (30 minutes)
a. Role Play (15 minutes):
Divide students into small groups and provide them with scenarios where they must use body
language, eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions to communicate effectively.
Examples:
Persuading a friend to join a school club
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Proposing a holiday plan for the class
Giving a speech at a school assembly
Have each group perform their role-play in front of the class.
Provide constructive feedback focusing on body language, eye contact, gestures, and facial
expressions.
b. Impromptu Speaking (15 minutes): (See Activity 1)
Students draw a topic card and prepare a 2-minute speech within 1 minute.
Students deliver impromptu speeches in front of the class.
Immediate feedback focusing on body language, eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions.
5. Homework (5 minutes)
Assign students to practice a short speech at home, focusing on incorporating body language, eye
contact, gestures, and facial expressions. They will present this speech in the next class.
4. ACTIVITY 4: IDENTIFYING LOGICAL FALLACIES
4.1. The importance of identifying Logical Fallacies:
Logical Fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument. They are often
used unintentionally, or sometimes deliberately, to mislead or persuade by using flawed logic. Despite their
flaws, fallacious arguments can often be persuasive, especially to those who are not familiar with the rules
of logic or critical thinking.
Teaching students to understanding and identify logical fallacies is essential for several reasons.
Firstly, it empowers students to critically evaluate the arguments they encounter in academic, professional,
and everyday contexts. This skill helps them detect valid arguments from flawed ones, fostering informed
decision-making and rational discourse. Secondly, by recognising fallacies in their own reasoning, students
can improve the quality of their arguments, making them more persuasive and robust. Lastly, teaching
students to identify logical fallacies enhances their overall communication skills, enabling them to engage
in more effective communication and meaningful arguments.
4.2. Teaching procedure of identifying Logical Fallacies:
SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN 4: IDENTIFYING LOGICAL FALLACIES
Objective: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
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recognise and understand common logical fallacies.
enhance critical thinking and argumentative skills.
Materials:
Handouts with definitions and examples of logical fallacies
Worksheets with practice exercises
TV/Projector
Duration: 60 minutes
LESSON PROCEDURE
1. Warm-up (5 minutes)
Show some examples of fallacies to the class. These examples could be translated into Vietnamese
to get the students’ attention as they are very common on social media and in their daily lives.
“Có làm được như người ta chưa mà nói.”
“Con nít thì biết cái gì mà nói.”
A: “Hút thuốc rất có hại cho sức khỏe.”
B: “Ông nội của mình hút thuốc nhưng vẫn khỏe mạnh có bệnh tật gì đâu.”
Ask students to find out what is wrong with the argument in these examples.
Lead to the topic: Logical Fallacies
2. Introduction to Common Fallacies (15 minutes)
Teacher introduces the definition of logical fallacies and highlights the importance of recognising
these to avoid being misled and to strengthen our own arguments.
Teacher provides a list of common fallacies with definitions and examples (See Appendix B).
Discuss each fallacy in detail, including:
Ad Hominem
Straw Man
Slippery Slope
Appeal to Authority
False Cause
Appeal to Emotion
Circular Reasoning
Hasty Generalization
Red Herring
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Bandwagon
False Dichotomy
Appeal to Ignorance
Loaded Question
Burden of Proof
Appeal to Tradition
Teacher provides students with statements, articles, speeches, or video clips containing logical
fallacies. Ask them to identify and explain the fallacies.
Examples:
TV commercial: https://youtu.be/ApsQPSvJ2aY?si=97Y5C8PR2Dnfsujk
(Slippery Slope)
Politics: https://youtu.be/-gm-GMIjNpo?si=IJ6DVGDnNhez9JA8
3. Analysis and Identification Practice (15 minutes)
Teacher distributes worksheets with practice exercises (See Appendix C)
Students work in groups to identify the fallacies.
Teacher checks with the whole class. Remind the students that the goal is not to find fault, but to be
a more discerning reader/listener. By recognising fallacies, students can better evaluate the
arguments they encounter online or in their daily lives.
4. Classroom Discussion and Debates (20 minutes)
Teacher organises classroom debates on various topics (See Activity 6: Debates)
Topic Examples:
Should schools implement a uniform policy?
Should college education be free for all students?
Should schools start later in the morning?
Should schools ban homework?
Should the use of plastic be banned?
During debates, students should listen critically to identify fallacies in their opponents' arguments.
After the debate, discuss the identified fallacies and how they affected the arguments.
5. Homework (5 minutes)
Encourage students to find other examples of fallacies in everyday conversations, articles, and on
the internet and analyse the flaw in these arguments.
20
5. ACTIVITY 5: CONSTRUCTING COUNTERARGUMENTS
5.1. The importance of Counterarguments:
A counterargument is a crucial component within argumentative discourse, serving to challenge or rebut
the main argument presented. According to the Purdue Online Writing Lab, it is defined as "an opposing
argument to the one a writer is putting forward". A counterargument not only acknowledges opposing
viewpoints but also strengthens the overall argument by addressing potential objections and demonstrating
a thorough understanding of the topic.
According to Kuhn (1991), engaging with counterarguments promotes advanced cognitive development
and enhances critical thinking, which are essential for effective communication. Additionally, practicing
counterarguments helps students organise their thoughts more coherently, making their speeches more
persuasive and easier for audiences to follow.
Research by Daly et al. (2009) also indicates that being prepared to address counterarguments reduces
public speaking anxiety, leading to more confident and eloquent delivery. Thus, teaching students to
construct counterarguments equips them with the skills necessary for sophisticated and persuasive speaking.
5.2. Teaching procedure of constructing Counterarguments:
SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN 4: CONSTRUCTING COUNTERARGUMENTS
Objective: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
identify weaknesses in an argument.
construct a well-reasoned counterargument using different strategies.
Materials:
Worksheets with exercises on constructing counterarguments. (See Appendix E)
TV/Projector
Duration: 90 minutes
LESSON PROCEDURE
1. Warm-up (5 minutes): Two Truths and a Lie
Teacher shows on the screen two valid arguments and one fallacious argument related to a given
topic.
The class must identify the fallacy and construct a possible counterargument to it.
Examples:
21
School Uniforms
Argument 1: School uniforms can promote a sense of community among students.
Argument 2: Uniforms can reduce the distraction of fashion competition.
Argument 3: School uniforms will completely eliminate bullying.
→ Argument 3 is a fallacious argument (False cause)
→ Counterargument: Bullying is a complex issue with many contributing factors
beyond clothing. Uniforms might address competition over fashion labels, but they won't
eliminate bullying based on race, social status, and personal characteristics.
Space Exploration
Argument 1: Space missions pose significant risks to the lives of astronauts due to harsh
and unpredictable conditions.
Argument 2: We shouldn't spend money on space exploration when there are problems
on Earth.
Argument 3: Satellites developed for space exploration provide critical data for
monitoring and addressing climate change.
→ Argument 2 is a fallacious argument (False dichotomy).
→ Counterargument: It's possible to address Earthly problems while investing in space
exploration. Many technological advancements from space exploration have practical
applications that benefit life on Earth, like satellite communication allows for better
disaster response coordination and internet access in remote areas.
Teacher asks students to discuss why it is important to consider opposing views in a debate.
Lead to the topic: Constructing Counterarguments.
2. Introduction to Constructing Counterarguments (10 minutes)
Explain what a counterargument is and why it is important in argumentative speaking and writing.
Present a sample argument on a topic relevant to your class. For example: "We should ban
homework altogether because it creates unnecessary stress for students".
Ask students to brainstorm possible counterarguments to this argument in groups of 3 or 4.
Teacher shows a suggested counterargument:
"While homework can indeed contribute to student stress, banning it altogether overlooks its
potential benefits in reinforcing learning and fostering independent study habits. Instead of
banning homework, schools should consider implementing balanced policies that limit the volume
and ensure its relevance to learning objectives. This approach supports academic development
while addressing concerns about student well-being".
22
Highlight the structure of a counterargument: acknowledging the opposing view, presenting
evidence or reasoning against it, and explaining why your position is ultimately more persuasive.
Ask students to discuss different strategies for constructing counterarguments.
Suggested answers:
Challenge assumptions: point out shaky assumptions and offer alternative perspectives.
Provide counter-evidence: present data or examples that contradict the original
argument's evidence.
Highlight drawbacks: expose potential downsides of the proposed solution the original
argument suggests.
Offer a different perspective: present a complementary viewpoint that adds another
dimension to the discussion.
Have students identify the strategies used in the example.
Suggested answer: The above example uses the strategy of highlighting potential drawbacks of
banning homework altogether (lack of reinforcement and independent study skills). Moreover, it
proposes a different approach (balanced homework policies) that addresses both concerns about
stress and learning benefits.
→ Students can combine different strategies while constructing counterarguments.
3. Constructing Counterarguments (20 minutes): Pair/Group work
Distribute worksheet with 8 arguments about different topics (See Appendix E).
Instruct students to work in pairs/groups to construct possible counterarguments for each
argument.
Circulate around the room to provide assistance and feedback.
Have each pair/group share one counterargument with the class and discuss.
6. Role-play and Practice (20 minutes):
Divide students into pairs or small groups and assign each group a debate topic.
Instruct one student in each group to present an argument for the topic, and the other student(s) to
construct a counterargument.
After the initial counterargument, have the students switch roles and repeat the process.
Provide feedback on the strength and effectiveness of their counterarguments.
7. Conclusion and Homework (5 minutes)
Summarise the key points covered in the lesson.
23
Assign homework where students must write a short essay on a given topic. Present the main
argument in the first half of the essay and a counterargument in the second half.
6. ACTIVITY 6: DEBATES
6.1. The importance of teaching Debates to students:
Teaching debates in educational settings is a powerful method for enhancing students' eloquence.
Debates require critical and analytical thinking, sharpening their ability to analyse information and
articulate thoughts clearly, thus enhancing argumentation skills and promoting a deeper understanding of
the subject matter (Kuhn, 1991). They serve as public speaking exercises, helping students improve vocal
clarity, pacing, and body language, thereby building self-confidence and reducing public speaking anxiety
(Brooks & Wilson, 2014). Additionally, debates involve impromptu rebuttals, enhancing students' ability
to quickly formulate coherent arguments, a skill crucial for effective communication in academic and
professional settings (Greene & Lidinsky, 2012). Preparing for debates requires thorough research and
logical organisation, developing strong research skills and clear argumentation, which contributes to overall
academic
success
(Johnson
&
Johnson,
1994).
Finally,
debating
involves
teamwork,
developing
interpersonal skills and the ability to work effectively in groups, crucial for success in both academic and
professional environments (Slavin, 1995).
6.2. Teaching procedure of Debates:
SAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN 6: DEBATES
Objective: At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
articulate their viewpoints clearly
critically analyse opposing viewpoints
engage in respectful and structured debate.
Materials:
Handout of debating rules (See Appendix F)
Debate topic cards
Timer
Duration: 90 minutes
LESSON PROCEDURE
1. Warm-up (5 minutes):
Divide the class into small groups.
24
Give each group a fun and light debate topic (e.g., "Cats vs. Dogs: Which makes a better pet?").
Allow 2 minutes for preparation and 2 minutes for informal debates within groups.
2. Introduction to Debating (10 minutes):
Introduce the format of a debate: opening statements, rebuttals, and closing statements.
Explain the roles of each team member: affirmative and negative teams.
Discuss the importance of respectful communication and staying on topic. (See debating rules in
Appendix F)
3. Topic Selection and Preparation (20 minutes):
Form debate teams
Provide students with a list of 10 debate topics. The following topic examples are selected from
speaking section in the National English Competition (NEC) 2021-2022 and 2022-2023.
Topic Examples:
Is increased access to social media more beneficial or harmful to society?
Can students learn effectively without taking tests or exams?
Do students study better individually or in groups when doing projects?
Should protecting the environment or economic growth be prioritized?
Is grammar still important in foreign language learning?
Should students be grouped by ability or taught in mixed-ability classes for better
learning outcomes?
Does success in learning a foreign language depend more on language aptitude or hard
work?
Can serious environmental problems be solved by technological inventions or by
consuming less and living simpler lifestyles?
Allow each group to pick a topic or assign topics randomly.
Each team has 15 minutes to research and prepare their arguments.
Encourage students to use reliable sources and organise their points clearly.
Depending on students’ level, the preparation can be conducted at home (a few days to a week
beforehand)
4. Debating Session (40 minutes):
Arrange the classroom to facilitate clear communication between teams.
Assign roles: speakers, moderator, timekeeper, and audience (if applicable).
Each debate follows this structure:
25
Opening Statements: Present main points and arguments supporting their stance
Affirmative team: 3 minutes
Negative team: 3 minutes
Rebuttals
: Teams respond directly to opponent’s arguments.
Affirmative team: 2 minutes
Negative team: 2 minutes
Closing Statements: Summarise their arguments and restate their position.
Affirmative team: 2 minutes
Negative team: 2 minutes
Conduct 2-3 debates depending on class size and time.
5. Feedback and Reflection (10 minutes):
Judges (teachers or students) decide the winner based on argumentation, evidence, and
presentation.
Teacher provides constructive feedback focusing on argumentation, delivery, and teamwork.
Encourage students to reflect on their performance and suggest areas for improvement.
26
PART C: CONCLUSION
1. Summary of the study
This study proposes six teaching activities aimed at developing the eloquence and public speaking
skills of English-specialised students. Given that students in gifted high schools already have a solid
foundation in grammar and vocabulary, the proposed activities focus on creating an open environment for
them to confidently practise. Some activities are designed to develop improvisation and quick thinking
skills (such as Impromptu Speaking and Debates), others to foster logical and critical thinking (such as
Identifying Fallacies and Constructing Counterarguments), and there are also activities that guide students
to present confidently and engagingly (such as Non-verbal Communication). Additionally, there is a
particular emphasis on encouraging students to explore the limitless capabilities of technology to support
their speaking skills outside of the classroom (AI Virtual Assistant).
These activities are built upon the fundamental principles of eloquence and theories related to public
speaking. The most important aspect is to create a friendly speaking environment where students feel
comfortable expressing their thoughts without fear of judgement or excessive focus on grammatical and
vocabulary errors. Moreover, it is crucial to maintain these speaking environments regularly and encourage
students' creativity during activities. This approach will help build their confidence and develop them into
independent individuals with sharp thinking skills, thereby nurturing eloquence from within.
2. Limitation of the study
The first limitation of this study lies in the scope and sample of students who are taught suggested
teaching activities. The number of students was limited to 35 12
th
-grade English-specialised students at a
gifted high school, most of whom had a B2-C1 level of English proficiency according to the CEFR. This
indicates that some activities may not be suitable and may need adjustments if applied to different student
groups. Additionally, the limited number of students and the short duration of the implementation (three
months) might not provide comprehensive results. These activities need to be applied on a larger scale and
over a longer period to ensure their feasibility and effectiveness.
Moreover, students' progress in speaking skills may be influenced by various factors beyond the
proposed activities. Factors such as students' self-study abilities or the allocation of time for speaking
practice can vary. Some students might focus more on exams like IELTS or NEC, dedicating more time to
speaking skills than others, which could lead to progress that is not solely attributable to the classroom
activities.
27
Another limitation of the study is the lack of specific evaluations using data collection tools to
measure the extent of students' progress in speaking skills and their attitudes towards these activities. Such
data would help researchers adjust the activities to fit the classroom conditions and the psychological needs
of the students. Researchers interested in this topic might consider expanding on these aspects in their future
studies.
28
PART D: SOURCES OF DATA AND REFERENCES
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford University Press.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Brooks, G., & Wilson, J. (2014). The role of public speaking in the development of students'
communication skills. Journal of Communication Education, 63(4), 365-380.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
Burns, A., & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on speaking. National Centre for English Language Teaching
and Research.
Clark, D. M., & Agras, W. S. (1991). The assessment and treatment of performance anxiety in
musicians. American Psychological Association.
Daly, J. A., Vangelisti, A. L., & Weber, D. J. (2009). "Speech Anxiety Affects How People Prepare
Speeches: A Protocol Analysis of the Preparation Processes of Speakers." Communication Monographs,
56(1), 31-41.
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational
assessment and instruction. American Philosophical Association.
Graham, S., & Macaro, E. (2008). Strategies for second language listening: Current scenarios and
improved pedagogy. Cambridge University Press.
Greene, S., & Lidinsky, A. (2012). From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Practical Guide. Bedford/St.
Martin's.
Kuhn, D. (1991). The Skills of Argument. Cambridge University Press.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. A. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The
Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125-132.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1994). Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive,
and Individualistic Learning. Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, K. E. (2005). Teaching language through literature: A research-based approach. Heinle
Cengage Learning.
Lucas, S. E. (2009). The art of public speaking (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
MacIntyre, P. D., Noels, K. A., & Clément, R. (1996). Biases in self-ratings of second language
proficiency: The role of language anxiety. Language Learning, 46(3), 529-555.
Nunan, D. (1991). Language teaching methodology. Prentice Hall.
Nunan, D. (2003). Practical English language teaching. McGraw-Hill.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes
to attitude change. Springer-Verlag.
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Counterargument. Purdue University. Retrieved July 13, 2024,
from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/argumentative_essays.html
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching (2nd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Savignon, S. J. (1997). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice (2nd ed.).
McGraw-Hill.
Scarcella, R., & Oxford, R. L. (1992). The tapestry of language learning: The individual in the
communicative classroom. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research, and Practice. Allyn & Bacon.
29
Smith, J. (2010). Speaking eloquently: The art of persuasive communication. Penguin Books.
Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge University Press.
Van Vleet, J. (2019). Logical Fallacies: The Ultimate Collection. CreateSpace Independent Publishing
Platform.
Woodrow, L. (2006). Anxiety and speaking English as a second language. RELc Journal, 37(3), 308-
328.
30
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
HOW TO INSTALL AND USE REPLIKA
Source: https://help.replika.com/hc/en-us/articles/115001095892-How-do-I-begin-Replika
1.
Visit your smart devices app store & search 'Replika'.
o
Or visit https://replika.ai/get for links to our app on the Apple App Store & Google
PlayStore
2.
Tap 'Start'
3.
On the 'Create an account' screen enter:
o
Your first name
o
Email you would like linked to your account
o
Your pronouns
4.
Tap 'Get started'
5.
Customize your AI by choosing the:
o
Gender you would like your AI to have
o
Selecting a 3D avatar you feel represents your Replika
6.
Tap 'Next'
7.
Customize your Replika's overall look! Choose from hairstyles, colors, skin tones, eye color &
more!
8.
Tap 'Next'.
9.
Enter your Replika's name.
10. Tap 'Finish' & claim your first daily login reward!
11. Meet your Replika!
If you are trying to chat with your Replika on the web via website, please follow these instructions:
1.
Into your URL bar enter 'replika.ai'
2.
Click 'Create your Replika'
3.
On the 'Create your Replika' screen enter
o
Your first name
o
Email you would like linked to your account
o
Your pronouns
4.
Click 'Get started'
5.
On the 'Choose your AI friend' screen
o
Select your Replika's 3D avatar
31
o
Choose their gender
6.
Click 'Next'
7.
Choose a name for your Replika & click 'Finish' to save
8.
Click 'Meet (your Replika's name here)' & get chatting!
32
APPENDIX B
HOW TO INSTALL AND USE CHATGPT AI VIRTUAL ASSISTANT
Source: https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2023/12/how-to-use-the-chatgpt-voice-chat-feature/
Installation and Setup
1.
Download the App: Install the ChatGPT app on your Android or iOS device.
2.
Sign In: Open the app and log in to your OpenAI account.
Launching Voice Chat
Launch the ChatGPT app and find the newly added headphone icon situated to the right of the
chat box.
Click on the icon and follow the instructions on the screen to finalize setting up the voice chat.
33
Begin Voice Interactions
After completing the setup, press the headphone icon once more to initiate a voice conversation
with ChatGPT voice. Speak to the AI, and it will respond to your vocal queries.
Personalize ChatGPT’s Voice in the App
To modify the voice, access the top left-side menu and select your account at the bottom.
In this section, choose the “Voice” option under the Speech category.
You can now pick a voice that suits your preference for ChatGPT.
34
APPENDIX C
Here's a list of common logical fallacies along with examples for each type:
(Source: “Logical Fallacies: The Ultimate Collection” by Jacob E. Van Vleet)
1. Ad Hominem
Definition: Attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
Example: "How can you argue your point about politics? You didn't even graduate from college!"
Counter: Redirect the focus back to the argument and its merits.
"My education level doesn't change the facts I've presented. Let's focus on the evidence and reasoning
behind my argument instead of my credentials."
2. Straw Man
Definition: Misrepresenting or exaggerating someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
Example: "Opponents of the new education policy just want our schools to fail and our children to
suffer."
Counter: Clarify the actual argument and address its core points.
"Actually, opponents of the policy are concerned about the funding allocation and its potential impact on
teacher retention rates. Let's discuss those specific concerns."
3. Slippery Slope
Definition: Asserting that a relatively small first step will lead to a chain of events ending in a
significant or extreme outcome.
Example: "If we allow students to redo this assignment, they'll expect to redo every assignment for
the rest of the year, and we'll have chaos in the classroom."
Counter: Challenge the causal link between the first step and the extreme outcome.
"Allowing students to redo assignments can actually teach resilience and improve learning outcomes. It
doesn't necessarily mean we'll face chaos; we can implement guidelines to manage revisions effectively."
4. Appeal to Authority
Definition: Using the opinion of an authority figure or institution as evidence in an argument,
without considering the validity of their opinion or expertise in that specific context.
Example: "Dr. Smith believes in homeopathy, so it must be effective."
Counter: Evaluate the authority's expertise in the specific context or present conflicting authorities.
"While Dr. Smith is a respected physician, many studies and medical organizations have found homeopathy
to lack scientific evidence. Let's consider a broader range of expert opinions and research findings."
5. False Cause (Post Hoc)
Definition: Assuming that because one event follows another, the first event must have caused the
second.
Example: "I ate a sandwich and then got sick. Therefore, the sandwich made me sick."
35
Counter: Investigate alternative causes or lack of correlation.
"It's possible there were other factors involved in your illness. Food poisoning can have various sources,
and we should consider other foods or environmental factors you were exposed to."
6. Appeal to Emotion
Definition: Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.
Example: "Think of the poor puppies in shelters! If you don't adopt one right now, you're heartless."
Counter: Refocus on factual evidence and logic rather than emotional manipulation.
"I understand the emotional appeal, but let's discuss the practical considerations like my ability to care for
a pet responsibly and whether adoption is the best choice for me right now."
7. Circular Reasoning
Definition: A type of reasoning in which the conclusion is included in the premise, essentially using
the conclusion to prove itself.
Example: "The Bible is the word of God because God tells us it is in the Bible."
Counter: Require evidence or logic independent of the conclusion.
"Can we examine external evidence or reasoning that supports the Bible's divine origin, beyond referencing
the Bible itself?"
8. Hasty Generalization
Definition: Drawing a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is not large enough or
representative enough.
Example: "I met two rude people from that city, so everyone from that city must be rude."
Counter: Present counterexamples or request more representative data.
"It's unfair to generalise based on a small sample. Let's consider more interactions or broader survey data
to understand the diversity within that city."
9. Red Herring
Definition: Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention away from the original issue.
Example: "Yes, I made a mistake, but what about all the good things I've done for this company?"
Counter: Redirect the discussion back to the original topic or issue.
"Let's address the mistake first and then discuss your contributions. It's important to stay focused on
resolving the issue at hand."
10. Bandwagon
Definition: Arguing that because something is popular or widely believed, it must be true or good.
Example: "Everyone is using this new app, so it must be the best one available."
Counter: Challenge the validity of popularity as evidence.
"Popularity doesn't necessarily equate to quality or effectiveness. Let's evaluate the app based on its features
and user reviews to determine its suitability."
11. False Dichotomy (Either/Or)
36
Definition: Presenting only two options or possibilities when there are actually more.
Example: "Either we ban all guns, or we accept that school shootings will continue forever."
Counter: Identify additional options or nuances in the situation.
"There are other options, such as improving mental health support, enhancing school security, and
implementing stricter background checks. Let's explore a range of solutions to address this complex issue."
12. Appeal to Ignorance
Definition: Arguing that a claim is true (or false) simply because it hasn't been proven false (or
true).
Example: "No one has proven that ghosts don't exist, so they must exist."
Counter: Clarify the burden of proof and request valid evidence.
"Absence of evidence is not evidence of existence. The burden of proof lies with those making the claim.
Can we explore empirical evidence or scientific methods to investigate this further?"
13. Loaded Question
Definition: Asking a question that has an assumption built into it so that it can't be answered without
appearing guilty.
Example: "Have you stopped cheating on exams?"
Counter: Challenge the assumption embedded in the question.
"That question assumes I was cheating. Let's rephrase it to discuss academic integrity and how we can
ensure fairness in assessments."
14. Burden of Proof
Definition: Asserting that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with
someone else to disprove.
Example: "You can't prove that aliens don't exist, so they must exist."
Counter: Shift the burden back to the person making the claim.
"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. The burden of proof lies with those asserting the
existence of aliens. Can we examine credible evidence to support this claim?"
15. Appeal to Tradition
Definition: Arguing that because something has been done a certain way for a long time, it must be
the best way.
Example: "We've always celebrated this holiday this way, so we shouldn't change it."
Counter: Evaluate the validity of tradition versus potential improvements.
"Tradition is valuable, but let's consider if there are ways to update the celebration to better reflect our
current values and inclusivity. How can we preserve meaningful traditions while adapting to modern
perspectives?"
37
APPENDIX D
Read each statement carefully and identify the logical fallacy it contains. Write the type of fallacy
next to each statement.
1.
"We should not listen to John’s argument on climate change because he isn’t a scientist."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
2.
"Either we ban all cars to save the environment, or we do nothing at all."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
3.
"My grandfather smoked his whole life and lived until 97, so smoking can’t be that bad for you."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
4.
"Everyone is buying the new smartphone, so it must be the best one available."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
5.
"If we allow students to redo their assignments, they’ll never learn responsibility."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
6.
"If you don’t support the war, you must hate our country."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
7.
"Just as a car won't run without gas, a student can't perform well without a good breakfast."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
8.
Person A: 'I believe we should have more public parks.'
Person B: 'I can’t believe you want to waste taxpayers’ money on parks!
o
Fallacy: …………………………
9.
"Either we pass this law, or the economy will collapse."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
10. "If you really loved me, you’d buy me that new car."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
11. "Everyone knows that this brand is the best; just look at the commercials."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
12. "People have been using natural remedies for centuries, so they must work."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
13. "If we don’t ban fast food, everyone will become obese."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
14. "Of course he would say that, he’s a politician."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
15. "If you allow your child to play video games, they will become violent."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
16. "She argues for higher taxes, but she's just a liberal."
38
o
Fallacy: …………………………
17. "A dog lover can’t be a good mayor because they will be biased towards animal issues."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
18. "If we allow people to marry the same sex, next people will want to marry their pets."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
19. "My doctor said that I should eat more vegetables, but he’s overweight, so why should I listen to
him?"
o
Fallacy: …………………………
20. "You’re either with us, or you’re against us."
o
Fallacy: …………………………
Suggested answer:
1.
Ad Hominem
2.
False Dichotomy
3.
Hasty Generalization
4.
Bandwagon
5.
Slippery Slope
6.
False Dichotomy
7.
False Analogy
8.
Straw Man
9.
False Dichotomy
10. Appeal to Emotion
11. Bandwagon
12. Appeal to Tradition
13. Slippery Slope
14. Ad Hominem
15. Slippery Slope
16. Ad Hominem
17. Ad Hominem
18. Slippery Slope
19. Ad Hominem
20. False Dichotomy
39
APPENDIX E
Work in pairs, brainstorm possible counterarguments to the following arguments:
1. "Social media should be banned for teenagers because it promotes negativity and cyberbullying."
2. "Traditional examinations are no longer suitable and should be replaced by other forms of assessment."
(NEC 2020)
3. "Because the goal of learning a foreign language is communication, grammar learning is no longer
important". (NEC 2023)
4. "Free college will lead to people taking education for granted."
5. "Video games are a waste of time and have negative effects on mental health."
6. "Technology is making us less human". (NEC 2019)
7. "Individuals can't make a difference in tackling climate change, so there's no point in trying."
8. "Strict environmental regulations hurt businesses and the economy."
Suggested Counterarguments:
1. "Social media should be banned for teenagers because it promotes negativity and cyberbullying."
→ While social media can have downsides, it also allows for communication, community building, and
access to information. Addressing cyberbullying through education and safety features could be a better
solution.
2. "Traditional examinations are no longer suitable and should be replaced by other forms of
assessment." (NEC 2020)
→ Traditional examinations provide standardised assessment criteria that ensure fairness and objectivity in
evaluating student performance across different contexts and institutions. Other forms of assessment, such
as
project-based
evaluations,
may
introduce
subjectivity
and
variability
in
grading,
potentially
compromising the reliability of academic assessments.
→ Traditional examinations, such as standardised tests and final exams, prepare students for the rigorous
assessment methods used in higher education and professional certifications. These assessments develop
40
critical thinking, time management, and problem-solving skills essential for academic success and career
readiness, which may not be fully addressed by alternative assessment methods.
3. "Because the goal of learning a foreign language is communication, grammar learning is no longer
important". (NEC 2023)
→ While effective communication is indeed a primary goal in learning a foreign language, grammar
learning remains crucial for achieving clarity, precision, and fluency in communication. Grammar provides
the structural foundation that enables learners to convey meaning accurately and effectively. Without a
solid understanding of grammar, learners may struggle to express themselves coherently, leading to
misunderstandings and limitations in their ability to engage meaningfully in conversations.
4. "Free college will lead to people taking education for granted."
→ Providing free college education can actually increase appreciation for education by removing financial
barriers that often discourage students from pursuing higher education. It allows individuals to focus more
on their studies and career goals without the burden of substantial debt, fostering a society where education
is valued and accessible to all, regardless of financial background.
5. "Video games are a waste of time and have negative effects on mental health."
→ While some video games can lead to negative effects if played excessively, many promote cognitive
skills like problem-solving and teamwork. Moderation, mindful game selection, along with parental
supervision can balance these benefits with potential risks, supporting mental well-being rather than solely
detracting from it.
6. "Technology is making us less human". (NEC 2019)
→ Technology enhances human connections and capabilities by facilitating communication, access to
information, and innovation. It complements rather than diminishes human interaction and creativity,
shaping modern society in beneficial ways.
7. "Individuals can't make a difference in tackling climate change, so there's no point in trying."
→ While individual actions alone may not solve climate change, collective efforts and global cooperation
are essential. Each person's choices, such as reducing consumption, recycling, and supporting sustainable
businesses, contribute to a larger movement towards mitigating climate change impacts. Every bit counts.
8. "Strict environmental regulations hurt businesses and the economy."
→ Investing in renewable energy and sustainable practices can create new jobs and stimulate green
technology industries.
41
APPENDIX F
DEBATING RULES
1.
Respect and Courtesy:
o
All participants must respect each other’s opinions and refrain from interrupting.
o
Personal attacks or disrespectful language are not allowed.
2.
Speaking Order and Time Limits:
o
Each speaker has a specific time limit (usually 3-5 minutes per speech).
o
Timekeeper signals when the speaker has 30 seconds remaining and when time is up.
o
A debate moderator ensures the smooth flow of the debate and adherence to rules.
3.
Rebuttal:
o
After the initial speeches, each team has a chance to rebut the points made by the opposing
team.
o
Rebuttal speeches are also timed (usually 2-3 minutes).
4.
Evidence and Arguments:
o
Arguments must be supported by evidence, such as statistics, expert opinions, or real-life
examples.
o
Logical reasoning should be used to connect evidence to the argument.
5.
Conclusion:
o
Each team delivers a closing statement summarising their main points and reinforcing their
position.
o
Closing statements are timed (usually 2-3 minutes).
